A minimum clearance for the reinforcment off the existing surface should be 0.75 in. (19 mm) or one bar diameter, whichever is greater, to allow a good flow of material around the reinforcing steel.
We are repairing a culvert in Dallas, TX. The concrete wall of the structure is prematurely disintegrating. We are considering a process to temporarily support the ceiling, remove the wall, place a form on one side, and use shotcrete to replace the wall. Does this sound like a reasonable use for shotcrete? What kind of specifications should be used?
Yes, this sounds like a good use of the shotcrete process. Your sequence sounds like a good plan. A sample Structural Shotcrete Specification is available from the Shotcrete magazine archive on the ASA Web site (www.shotcreteweb.wpengine.com/).
We are designing underground support for a hydropower tunnel. I want to know whether wire mesh-reinforced shotcrete or steel fiber-reinforced shotcrete will be better and more economical. What are the advantages and disadvantages of both of these types of reinforcement if used for supporting a tunnel for hydropower? Also, for slope protection work, which type of shotcrete is better in terms of reliability, durability, and cost?
There are really two questions here: 1) Underground fiber-reinforced versus mesh reinforced; and 2) slope protection fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced.
- Underground fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced: it is not clear what the alternatives are that you are considering, but sprayed concrete has a good, solid track record for ground support. If it is a simple comparison of steel mesh versus steel fiber reinforcement, then the issue is one of a design approach.
Wire mesh and bolts have a longer history and are simple to design as a rigid structure. To install mesh and bolts, however, requires working under unsupported ground. Mechanized spraying of concrete is done with the operator under supported ground and therefore is intrinsically safer.The design of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete as ground support is approached differently. The sprayed concrete is allowed to deform to a certain extent before coming to rest with the ground forces finding a new equilibrium. The extent of this deformation depends on the energy absorption of the sprayed concrete structure, which is provided for by the fibers.Steel fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete is by far faster to place and therefore has economic benefits. As the fibers are discontinuous, there is merit in considering this structure less susceptible to corrosion and consequential durability issues. We recommend consulting ACI 506.1R and ACI 506.5R. - Slope protection fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced: for slope protection, both fiber-reinforced and wire-mesh-reinforced shotcrete work well and are durable, reliable, and cost effective if done properly. Care must be taken with wire mesh reinforcing to ensure that it is maintained in the middle of the section and not on the ground where it is not effective. Wire mesh can also be difficult to install on an irregular surface and require more shotcrete material to cover the area and the mesh. The wire mesh can be an asset to the installer in providing a grid to support a scaffold system. In many applications, the choice of wire mesh or fibers should be left to the installer with the engineer specifying the minimum requirement for each.
What is the recommended cure time for shotcrete pools and spas so that shrinkage cracks in finished tile work can be avoided?
Concrete, when applied using the shotcrete process, or cast-in-place, needs to cure for 7 days. Water is the best curing method (7 continuous days). Curing compound can be applied, but the membrane film that is formed will have to be removed by sand or water blasting (5000 psi [34.5 MPa] is recommended) before the plaster or tile can be set (it will create a bond breaker if not removed). There are curing compounds with a dissipating resin, which means after about 30 days in the sun, the material will break down. In either case, it is a good practice to pressure wash the concrete surface to remove the grit and dust out of the pours so that the plaster and tile will have a good bond. This is normal, everyday concrete curing practice that helps to prevent shrinkage cracks. The concrete being applied should have a water-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.35 to 0.45. Having the w/c at 0.40 at a 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) slump will keep the water demand low to help minimize the shrinkage. Wet-fogging freshly placed concrete before the curing process begins will also help prevent shrinkage cracks.
We have demolished two radioactively contaminated buildings down to their concrete slabs. One of the slabs has a concrete pit that is 26 ft (8 m) deep. The slabs have not been removed because the soil beneath the slabs is contaminated and we’re using the slabs as a cover to protect the spread of contamination in the soil until the soil remediation begins. We’d like to use shotcrete to temporarily (up to 5 years) fix the contamination on the slabs and the 5 ft (1.5 m) area surrounding them. The questions we have are: 1) Will shotcrete adhere to the concrete slabs and pit walls for up to 5 years without special preparations? (Portions of the radioactively contaminated concrete are painted and it is dirty from demolition activities); and 2) What is the minimum thickness of shotcrete needed to last for 5 years in this type of application? We do not want to use any wire or fabric mesh as it would require personnel to work in a radiologically controlled environment to install the material.
Shotcrete, like concrete, likely will not adhere to surfaces that are painted and dirty from the demolition activities. There should be no issue to the time durability. Shotcrete is pneumatically placed concrete and has great long-term durability characteristics if placed properly.Shotcrete has been installed in many adverse environments at a thickness of 2 in. (50 mm) with fibrous reinforcement and provided a long service life. Many irrigation districts line their canals with shotcrete and it has provided decades of great service in freeze-thaw exposures.
We have an approximately 9500 ft2 (882.6 m2) pool that was built and finished in midsummer. Four weeks later, the pool has developed “spider web” cracking in the bottom. We need to have a compressive strength test done. Our crew is on site now and is going to pull a 4 in. (101.6 mm) core sample for testing. I need to know what procedure to follow and where to send the sample for testing.
Consult with a local engineering firm that is qualified to develop a coring plan, obtain cores, and perform testing in accordance with ASTM C42/C42M or ASTM C1604/C1604M. Please refer to ASTM C42/C42M for further guidance.
How soon after shooting a pool shell can formwork be removed? How soon can tiling begin?
Vertical formwork can generally be removed the day following the shotcrete installation. If the formwork is supporting a load like a soffit form, the form should not be removed until the shotcrete has attained full strength such that it can support the weight of the member.
Your question regarding the installation of the tile should be directed to a professional who installs tile.
Type CA and FA shotcrete are two classifications listed in ASTM C1480. What is the application of these two types of shotcrete?
Type FA shotcrete uses a fine aggregate meeting the requirements of ASTM C1436 Gradation #1. Type CA shotcrete uses a combined aggregate gradation meeting the requirements of ASTM C1436 Gradation #2. The decision on which type to use depends on the application, shotcrete thickness, specification requirements, and perhaps the shotcrete equipment to be used, that is, wet- or dry-process. For example, one may want to use Type FA if using dry-process equipment and placing thin sections, or when a smooth finished surface texture is required. For thicker sections, Type CA shotcrete may provide the best properties for the application. The choice of which to use depends on the application, equipment, and experience of the contractor.
One of our clients has a 65.6 ft (20 m) tall mechanically supported earth (MSE) wall (to dump the ore from the mine into the crushers). The wall is about 984.25 ft (300 m) long and has approximately 30-degree slopes on both ends, like a pyramid. These slopes have eroded over the last 8 years of operation and some of the wall reinforcing is exposed. We want to stop the erosion and stabilize the slopes. The instructions issued to the contractor are: level the slopes; fill the voids; compact; apply shotcrete (maximum 1 in. [25 mm]). The area in question is 6.6 x 65.6 x 131.2 ft (2 x 20 x 40 m). Is shotcrete application in this case appropriate? Can you forward information on experts we could consult on?
Shotcrete is well suited to the application you have described. You need to determine the characteristics that you want from the shotcrete (strength, toughness, freeze-thaw durability) and include these in the specification. The 1 in. (25 mm) seems very thin for a long-term installation. Please be aware that the material costs (in most cases) will be a small part of the total cost of the installation. You should also make sure that you have a good specification for surface preparation. If the existing surface is not properly prepared, the added shotcrete will not bond well and the installation will not last very long.
The ASA Online Buyers Guide (www.Shotcrete/BuyersGuide) is an excellent source to locate members within the field of shotcrete whom are listed as shotcrete consultants.
I have a question on cold weather shotcreting. I have heard that for shotcrete operations, the ambient temperature has to be 40°F (4.4°C) and rising. I am on a job, and the inspector said it only needs to be 35°F (1.67°C) and rising. The high for the day is expected to be around 45°F (7.2°C), then fall back into the high 20s F (–4 to –1.67°C). What would be your advice?
Shotcrete is concrete and the same rules apply with respect to cold weather applications. Cold weather is defined in ACI 306R, “Cold Weather Concreting” as “a period when, for more than 3 consecutive days, the following conditions exist: 1) the average daily air temperature is less than 40°F (4.4°C) and 2) the air temperature is not greater than 50°F (10°C) for more than one-half of any 24-hour period.” ACI 306R is an excellent reference that provides recommendations for cold weather concrete placement and protection. A copy of ACI 306R can be purchased online at ACI’s Web site, www.concrete.org, from the Bookstore and Publications tab. You can also download articles regarding cold weather placement from ASA’s Web site, shotcrete.org—click on “Shotcrete magazine,” go to the article search page, and type in “cold weather.”