The ASA Technical Questions and Answers is a free service offered to all users, but primarily intended for engineers, architects, owners and anyone else who may be specifying the shotcrete process and/or has need for a possible answer to a technical question.
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UndergroundQ I’m looking for information as to the thickness design of shotcrete for ditch slope lining purposes. Can you direct me?
Typically, the thickness is a minimum of 3 inches and slope lining in the 6 to 8 inch range is often installed. The reinforcing is also variable with the lightest sections with no reinforcing or a low dosage of polyfibers or light welded wire fabric and the heavier sections with rebar. Basically, a lot of different designs can be used. We are not aware of any widely used standards.
UndergroundQ In regards to the strength of shotcrete and weather is there a Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) regulation requiring our paste cylinder sample results to be above a certain psi (MPa)?
Shotcrete is normally expected to meet or exceed 4000 psi (27.6 MPa). We are not aware of any specific MSHA requirements. We would suggest you consult a tunnel or mining engineer who is well-versed with shotcrete. Cores taken from field-shot test panels are generally used for the evaluation of compressive strength of shotcrete (ASTM C1140/C1140M-11).
UndergroundQ Is it critical for the early and intermediate compressive strength at 3 and 7 days, respectively, to be met for shotcrete applications for a rock fall face if the 28-day compressive strength is met?
Compressive strength at 1, 3, and 7 days can be important to all for subsequent operations. In general, 7-day strengths are a good indicator of the ultimate 28-day strength. The need for early strength is an engineering and construction sequence issue, not a normal or typical shotcrete requirement.
UndergroundQ Often, steel fiber-reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) linings are applied in underground construction. In some areas of high tensile stresses, it is necessary to use additional ordinary reinforcement (reinforcing bar/mesh). It may be inefficient to switch to non-fibrous shotcrete for these regions. Are the shadowing problems to be expected in that case (SFRS with additional ordinary reinforcement) more severe and how can they be resolved?
It is not uncommon to encapsulate lattice girders or steel sets in fibrous shotcrete. The skill of the nozzleman, the size and density of the reinforcing, and the characteristics of the mixture and the accelerator are the most important factors in achieving good encapsulation of reinforcing bar or these more complicated applications around lattice girders or steel sets. With welded-wire reinforcement, you should have a 4 x 4 in. (100 x 100 mm) or greater spacing. With reinforcing bar, you should use the minimum diameter possible at a minimum spacing of around 6 in. (150 mm). Preconstruction mockups should be considered to prove the competency of the nozzleman and the mixture. Please note that the best nozzleman cannot succeed without a good, workable mixture.
UndergroundQ One of our clients has a 65.6 ft (20 m) tall mechanically supported earth (MSE) wall (to dump the ore from the mine into the crushers). The wall is about 984.25 ft (300 m) long and has approximately 30-degree slopes on both ends, like a pyramid. These slopes have eroded over the last 8 years of operation and some of the wall reinforcing is exposed. We want to stop the erosion and stabilize the slopes. The instructions issued to the contractor are: level the slopes; fill the voids; compact; apply shotcrete (maximum 1 in. [25 mm]). The area in question is 6.6 x 65.6 x 131.2 ft (2 x 20 x 40 m). Is shotcrete application in this case appropriate? Can you forward information on experts we could consult on?
Shotcrete is well suited to the application you have described. You need to determine the characteristics that you want from the shotcrete (strength, toughness, freeze-thaw durability) and include these in the specification. The 1 in. (25 mm) seems very thin for a long-term installation. Please be aware that the material costs (in most cases) will be a small part of the total cost of the installation. You should also make sure that you have a good specification for surface preparation. If the existing surface is not properly prepared, the added shotcrete will not bond well and the installation will not last very long.
The ASA Online Buyers Guide (www.Shotcrete/BuyersGuide) is an excellent source to locate members within the field of shotcrete whom are listed as shotcrete consultants.
UndergroundQ Our company is carrying out a tunnel project in rather poor geological conditions, including water seepage and poor rock, with wire mesh and two layers of steel mat. What is the reasonable rebound percentage in such conditions?
Shotcrete rebound varies for many different reasons, many of which you mention in your question. The water seepage must be controlled or the shotcrete will likely not adhere to the surface and will slough off as the water saturates the fresh shotcrete. Accelerator will help, but it is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve good results against a seeping surface. ACI 506R-05, “Guide to Shotcrete,” estimates approximate range of shotcrete losses from 10 to 30%. Some other factors affecting the percentage of rebound are:
Mixture design
- Shotcrete process (wet- or dry-mix)
- Concrete mixture design and materials (for example, microsilica will tend to create less rebound; more than 30% coarse aggregate can cause more rebound)
- Plastic concrete properties (air content, slump)
- Nozzleman competence
- Vertical placement generally has less rebound than overhead
- Thickness of buildup per layer
Reinforcing grid
- Size and spacing of reinforcing
- Stability of reinforcing grid
UndergroundQ We are a local agency considering the repair of a number of older culverts with shotcrete. Like most agencies, we are trying to be creative about maximizing our funds. We work with a federal agency when it is determined that a “new” culvert is needed. In other words, the agency will not pay for maintenance repairs but will pay for “new” culverts. We are wondering if the shotcrete method has ever been viewed as a means of creating a “new” culvert. Could the existing culvert be considered as merely a form for the new culvert? Could you also speak to the life expectancy of shotcrete (life cycle) versus a new concrete culvert?
Shotcrete has been used extensively for the purpose of relining existing culverts. You are correct to visualize the existing culvert as a form for building a new structure. Because it is a stay-in-place form, it may actually act as a composite structure. Shotcrete is a method of placing concrete and will have similar, if not better, durability and life span if installed professionally with good mixtures. You can locate numerous past articles on durability of shotcrete that have appeared in Shotcrete magazine in the magazine’s archive on the ASA website, shotcrete.org. Similar work has been done in California, Colorado, and other states. This approach is currently being used as permanent tunnel lining in many places, including many of the current New York Transit projects.
A knowledgeable contractor will develop a mixture and procedures to ensure that the timing of the subsequent blast is compatible with the set time of the shotcrete. Preconstruction testing should be required to establish the set time (both early and final set) to assist in developing the sequence of operations. The set time will also be impacted by the site conditions, such as temperature.
UndergroundQ We are considering a shotcrete application over a weathered rock outcrop (consisting of sandstone, siltstone, and clay stone) in our backyard to prevent further erosion and unstable conditions. Does the outcrop need to be prepared as described in your previous Shotcrete FAQs (loose material removed, saturated surface-dry [SSD]) if a mesh that is anchored to the outcrop will be used? Also, will the shotcrete need to have fibers in the mixture? Do we need joints?
It is always a good practice to scale off the loose material from the rock face, particularly when dealing with shale or clay stone, as they degrade when exposed to the air. In addition to scaling the rock face, it should be washed down with air and water prior to gunning. As for expansion joints, they are not normally used when gunning over natural rock. The shotcrete is typically gunned continuously across the hillside without any expansion joints, with a natural gun finish following the natural contours of the rock face. With an anchored mesh in place, the use of fibers is not necessary. In many applications, fibers can be used in place of or in addition to mesh.
UndergroundQ We are considering a shotcrete lining of a new corrugated metal pipe to improve the smoothness and hydraulic capacity. What is the minimum thickness over the corrugations and should we be looking at any reinforcement or studs to support the shotcrete?
This has been done in the past to improve hydraulic capacity and provide better wear resistance in the invert. Typically, the minimum cover over the corrugation is 2 to 3 in. (51 to 76 mm) with a welded-wire fabric either welded or otherwise attached to the corrugated pipe. The cover could likely be reduced with the use of structural fibers of either steel or synthetic material. Steel fibers and wire mesh should not be used together. Care must be taken to specify the required finish. This application would likely benefit from a smooth trowel or light broom finish. A light broom finish is preferable from a safety standpoint, as a trowel finish creates a very slippery surface both during construction and for the maintenance at a later date. In addition to the hydraulic and wear characteristics, once shotcreted, the entire pipe will become a composite section with improved structural characteristics. It should be noted that the pipe must be large enough for workers to work in safely and productively. This would mean an absolute minimum of 48 in. (1219 mm) and preferably larger.
A knowledgeable contractor will develop a mixture and procedures to ensure that the timing of the subsequent blast is compatible with the set time of the shotcrete. Preconstruction testing should be required to establish the set time (both early and final set) to assist in developing the sequence of operations. The set time will also be impacted by the site conditions, such as temperature.
UndergroundQ We are constructing a canopy for a mine entrance. We need to attach some type of wire mesh to the wood fillers to give the shotcrete some surface to bond to. What type of wire would be the best for this application? The mine canopy is self-supporting and the shotcrete is strictly to be used as a sealant.
AA typical wire mesh for such applications is 2 x 2 in. (51 x 51 mm) by 12 or 14 gauge; 3 x 3 in. (76 x 76 mm) by 11 gauge; or 4 x 4 in. (102 x 102 mm) by 10 gauge. It is important that the mesh be secured such that it does not move during the shotcrete placement. The mesh will tend to be pushed away from the back surface by the pressure of the shotcrete application.