ASA does not have such a document. The concrete cover for embedded reinforcing steel is subject to the local Building Codes and may be increased by the structural plans and specifications produced by an Engineer or Architect for a specific project. ACI 350-06, “Code Requirements for Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures and Commentary,” covers concrete structures intended for water containment and would be applicable to pools. The following is a link to ACI’s bookstore: www.concrete.org/bookstore/ProductDetail.aspx?itemid=35006.
To keep shrinkage cracking sufficiently tight so as not to cause reflective cracking in the plaster layer, what is the proper depth of reinforcing steel from the shotcrete surface in swimming pool applications?
This question should be addressed by a qualified engineer with experience in designing swimming pools and well-versed in shotcrete technology. Shotcrete is a method of placing concrete and the parameters that work for concrete cover work for shotcrete.
Good practices for placing shotcrete or concrete include:
- Predampening the soil that the concrete/shotcrete is placed against;
- Ensuring that the reinforcing bar temperature is not too high; and
- Early curing of the shotcrete surface and maintenance of curing for the specified duration. If no duration is specified, a 7-day wet cure is recommended.
Using fibers in the shotcrete/concrete can also help control surface early-age plastic shrinkage cracking.
I have a swimming pool that appears to have shrinkage cracks in the floor. I have tried to inject an epoxy, but the cracks are too small. Do you have any suggestions?
There are a wide variety of epoxies and polyurethanes used for crack injection. Smaller crack widths would require a lower-viscosity material to penetrate the crack. You should contact an engineer or injection specialist experienced in shotcrete and cracking issues to evaluate the cracking and make a specific recommendation for repair. Proper concrete mixture design, placement techniques, and early water fogging and curing can help to reduce plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage cracking in the future.
Are there tolerance standards for the use of shotcrete in pool construction? For example, in regard to the pool depth, what is the accepted variation from the depth specified?
We are not aware of specific tolerances for shotcrete in swimming pools. Shotcrete is a method of placing concrete and the cover over reinforcing steel should be the same as that for cast concrete. With respect to the depth of the pool, this would be a building code issue, not a shotcrete issue.
We recently contracted with a shotcrete company to install a shotcrete structure for a swimming pool. After the pool was completed and filled with water, rust stains began emerging through the plaster surface. When we broke out a section of the pool structure, we found that there was little to no coverage of shotcrete over the steel reinforcement. The shotcrete company’s excuse is that they shot the pool to maintain the desired finished depths and widths and there was little to no coverage because the steel was set too high (even if that were the case, they never alerted anyone during the installation). This sounds like an excuse to me. Shouldn’t the shotcrete company we hired make sure that the concrete coverage met or exceeded what the structural engineer called for? Is there any credibility to their explanation of why they didn’t cover the reinforcing bar enough? What is the standard practice for shotcrete installation?
In short, the shotcrete contractor is responsible for maintaining proper cover over the reinforcing steel. The reinforcing bar installer should set the steel in the proper location for achieving the required cover corresponding to the final desired shape. If the shotcrete contractor finds that he cannot maintain proper cover with the reinforcing as placed, however, he needs to communicate to the designer/owner/general contractor that the reinforcing needs to be fixed before he shoots the section in place. There is no excuse for placing shotcrete with less than the specified cover, as shooting it with reduced cover will obviously create a section that has much less durability than intended by the designer.
I have been in the swimming pool industry for 30 years and I deal with a lot of different engineers on my commercial projects who want a wet test to verify water tightness before the finish is applied to the pool. In my experience, air-entrained shotcrete tends to be porous and leak. Are there any engineering specifications that state that air-entrained shotcrete is porous and will leak if the surface is not trowel-finished?
Properly added and mixed air-entraining admixture in concrete will actually reduce the permeability of concrete. This is because the small, well-formed air bubbles from air-entraining admixtures are not interconnected as larger, entrapped air bubbles may be in non-air-entrained concrete. Thus, the reported higher permeability of the air-entrained shotcrete is not a material flaw but must be from poor shotcrete application. Air entraining from 4 to 7% air is advantageous for enhanced resistance to the freezing-and-thawing cycles of saturated concrete and should be specified by the designer in areas subject to significant numbers of freezing-and-thawing cycles annually. The reported high permeability and resultant failure to pass a water-tightness test could be investigated by taking cores of the “porous” material and conducting a petrographic analysis of the core. Based on the reported results, I strongly suspect that the in-place shotcrete has major issues with sand pockets, overspray, and rebound.
I am working on a water feature formed out of cast-in-place reinforced concrete with a hot-fluid-applied waterproofing system over the concrete. To protect the waterproofing, we plan to install shotcrete over it. What minimum thickness of shotcrete is required? Would welded wire fabric or fiber mesh be required as well?
In general, we would recommend a minimum of 2 in. (50 mm) of shotcrete. Either fibers or wire mesh or both should be used in this application. Please note that there are different types of synthetic fibers (microsynthetic and macrosynthetic). Refer to ACI 506.1R for information on fiber-reinforced shotcrete.
If the surfaces are steep or vertical, wire mesh should be used, but provisions need to be included to stabilize the wire mesh. This would likely require attachment points through the waterproofing system.
What is the recommended cure time for shotcrete pools and spas so that shrinkage cracks in finished tile work can be avoided?
Concrete, when applied using the shotcrete process, or cast-in-place, needs to cure for 7 days. Water is the best curing method (7 continuous days). Curing compound can be applied, but the membrane film that is formed will have to be removed by sand or water blasting (5000 psi [34.5 MPa] is recommended) before the plaster or tile can be set (it will create a bond breaker if not removed). There are curing compounds with a dissipating resin, which means after about 30 days in the sun, the material will break down. In either case, it is a good practice to pressure wash the concrete surface to remove the grit and dust out of the pours so that the plaster and tile will have a good bond. This is normal, everyday concrete curing practice that helps to prevent shrinkage cracks. The concrete being applied should have a water-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.35 to 0.45. Having the w/c at 0.40 at a 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) slump will keep the water demand low to help minimize the shrinkage. Wet-fogging freshly placed concrete before the curing process begins will also help prevent shrinkage cracks.
We have an approximately 9500 ft2 (882.6 m2) pool that was built and finished in midsummer. Four weeks later, the pool has developed “spider web” cracking in the bottom. We need to have a compressive strength test done. Our crew is on site now and is going to pull a 4 in. (101.6 mm) core sample for testing. I need to know what procedure to follow and where to send the sample for testing.
Consult with a local engineering firm that is qualified to develop a coring plan, obtain cores, and perform testing in accordance with ASTM C42/C42M or ASTM C1604/C1604M. Please refer to ASTM C42/C42M for further guidance.
How soon after shooting a pool shell can formwork be removed? How soon can tiling begin?
Vertical formwork can generally be removed the day following the shotcrete installation. If the formwork is supporting a load like a soffit form, the form should not be removed until the shotcrete has attained full strength such that it can support the weight of the member.
Your question regarding the installation of the tile should be directed to a professional who installs tile.