Structurally, using proper quantities of either welded wire or fibers should work well. If fibers are used, they should be specified by an engineer who has the experience to specify the type of fiber and either performance requirements or dosage levels. The advantage of fibers is that they are uniformly distributed through the section, whereas the welded-wire reinforcement can be difficult to maintain in the proper location within the pavement section. The proper thickness should also be determined by a qualified engineer, as soil and groundwater pressures can impact the required thickness.
We are considering a shotcrete application over a weathered rock outcrop (consisting of sandstone, siltstone, and clay stone) in our backyard to prevent further erosion and unstable conditions. Does the outcrop need to be prepared as described in your previous Shotcrete FAQs (loose material removed, saturated surface-dry [SSD]) if a mesh that is anchored to the outcrop will be used? Also, will the shotcrete need to have fibers in the mixture? Do we need joints?
It is always a good practice to scale off the loose material from the rock face, particularly when dealing with shale or clay stone, as they degrade when exposed to the air. In addition to scaling the rock face, it should be washed down with air and water prior to gunning. As for expansion joints, they are not normally used when gunning over natural rock. The shotcrete is typically gunned continuously across the hillside without any expansion joints, with a natural gun finish following the natural contours of the rock face. With an anchored mesh in place, the use of fibers is not necessary. In many applications, fibers can be used in place of or in addition to mesh.
We are currently placing a shotcrete wall in a tunnel. The wall has a minimum thickness of 8.25 in. (210 mm) and is placed against secant piles. Our specs called for a wet cure. To minimize shrinkage cracking, what is the minimum amount of time to allow after shotcrete placement before the wet cure is applied?
There is a difficult balance between wet curing too early or too late. You should not add water too early (before the material sets), as this would increase the water-cement ratio (w/c) of the material on the surface. You also do not want to add water during the finishing process, as this would also work the water into the surface and increase the w/c at the surface. Good practice would be to use an evaporative retardant, which generally also serves as a finishing aid during the finishing process, and then get the wet cure set up as soon as possible.
Often, steel fiber-reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) linings are applied in underground construction. In some areas of high tensile stresses, it is necessary to use additional ordinary reinforcement (reinforcing bar/mesh). It may be inefficient to switch to non-fibrous shotcrete for these regions. Are the shadowing problems to be expected in that case (SFRS with additional ordinary reinforcement) more severe and how can they be resolved?
It is not uncommon to encapsulate lattice girders or steel sets in fibrous shotcrete. The skill of the nozzleman, the size and density of the reinforcing, and the characteristics of the mixture and the accelerator are the most important factors in achieving good encapsulation of reinforcing bar or these more complicated applications around lattice girders or steel sets. With welded-wire reinforcement, you should have a 4 x 4 in. (100 x 100 mm) or greater spacing. With reinforcing bar, you should use the minimum diameter possible at a minimum spacing of around 6 in. (150 mm). Preconstruction mockups should be considered to prove the competency of the nozzleman and the mixture. Please note that the best nozzleman cannot succeed without a good, workable mixture.
Can shotcrete be applied on wet shale rock? How well does shotcrete bond to shale?
Shotcrete is routinely used to seal shale after excavations. It is typically done as soon as possible after the excavation because the shale will deteriorate when exposed to the air. When shotcreting, it is considered good practice to wet the receiving surface prior to gunning to create a saturated surface-dry (SSD) condition so the substrate will not draw moisture from the newly placed shotcrete. A good SSD condition is where the surface is wet without any standing water on it. Gunning over wet shale should not be a problem unless the water seeping from the shale is moving. If that is the case, we would recommend installing weep holes with plastic pipe at the locations where the water is seeping from and using an accelerator to flash-set the material immediately around the weep-hole pipe. It is also a good idea to install weep holes at regular intervals along the excavation or exposed hillside. It is important to use a qualified shotcrete subcontractor for this or any high-quality shotcrete installation. A qualified shotcrete contractor will use ACI-certified nozzlemen and should provide you with a résumé of similar, successfully installed projects, along with the up-to-date contact information of representatives from the owners or engineers involved in those projects. The ASA Buyers Guide (www.shotcreteweb.wpengine.com/pages/products-services-information/buyers-guide/) is an excellent source of shotcrete contractors.
I will be placing a large amount of concrete via the shotcreting process onto a river bed. There are minimal forces and the only reason I need reinforcing is for temperature and shrinkage. If I add fibers to the mixture design, what percent of steel will I still need (if any) or, in other words, how much fiber do I need to include so that any other form of mesh or reinforcing bar is not required to meet temperature and shrinkage requirements? In addition, will too much fiber have any unwanted effects?
Fibers are typically added to shotcrete linings for canals, channels, and other water structures in lieu of conventional reinforcing, such as welded wire reinforcement (WWR). For your “large amount of concrete via the shotcreting process,” we assume that you are using the wet-mix shotcrete process.
Temperature/shrinkage reinforcement is typically placed in thin sections governed by the structural concrete provisions of ACI 318 at a rate of 0.15 to 0.18%. Please be aware that if the lining is intended to be liquid-tight and has movement joints spaced at greater than 40 ft (12 m) apart, a reinforcement ratio of at least 0.50% is recommended by ACI 350 for concrete liquid-containing structures. Assuming that the section does not need to be liquid-tight and using the ACI 318 requirements, let’s consider the tensile capacity of a conventionally reinforced section and provide an equal or greater tensile capacity with fibers. Assuming a 3 in. (75 mm) thick lining with an assumed 28-day compressive strength of 4000 psi (28 MPa), using a WWR of 6 x 6 x W2.9/W2.9 in this section provides a percentage of steel of 0.161% and a tensile capacity of 3770 lb/ft (5610 kg/m). (Asfy = 0.058 in.2/ft [0.12 mm] x 65,000 psi [448 MPa] = 3770 lb/ft [5610 kg/m].)
Then, we assume that the direct tensile strength is 75% of the flexural strength (modulus of rupture [MOR]). For 3770 lb/ft (5610 kg/m) in a section 3 x 12 in. (75 x 300 mm), we have 3770/(12 × 3) = 105 psi (0.72 MPa). Then, we need an average residual strength (ARS) (ASTM C1399) of 105/0.75 = 139.6 psi (0.963 MPa) = 140 psi (0.965 MPa).
Using a macrosynthetic fiber, one can achieve these results using 4 to 5 lb/yd3 (2.4 to 3.0 kg/m3) in wet-process shotcrete. Fiber manufacturers will provide exact dosages to meet the ARS requirements.
Using steel fibers, approximately 43 lb/yd3 (25.5 kg/m3) will provide an equivalent area of steel to the WWR of 6 x 6 x W2.9/W2.9 in a 3 in. (75 mm) thick concrete section. Using steel fibers, however, may require a flash coat to cover the fibers that will protrude and rust over time. The corrosion of the fibers will only reach a carbonation depth of 0.05 to 0.10 in. (1 to 2 mm) but may result in staining the lining.
These calculations assume a thickness and strength. You must adjust for your conditions.
We are designing underground support for a hydropower tunnel. I want to know whether wire mesh-reinforced shotcrete or steel fiber-reinforced shotcrete will be better and more economical. What are the advantages and disadvantages of both of these types of reinforcement if used for supporting a tunnel for hydropower? Also, for slope protection work, which type of shotcrete is better in terms of reliability, durability, and cost?
There are really two questions here: 1) Underground fiber-reinforced versus mesh reinforced; and 2) slope protection fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced.
- Underground fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced: it is not clear what the alternatives are that you are considering, but sprayed concrete has a good, solid track record for ground support. If it is a simple comparison of steel mesh versus steel fiber reinforcement, then the issue is one of a design approach.
Wire mesh and bolts have a longer history and are simple to design as a rigid structure. To install mesh and bolts, however, requires working under unsupported ground. Mechanized spraying of concrete is done with the operator under supported ground and therefore is intrinsically safer.The design of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete as ground support is approached differently. The sprayed concrete is allowed to deform to a certain extent before coming to rest with the ground forces finding a new equilibrium. The extent of this deformation depends on the energy absorption of the sprayed concrete structure, which is provided for by the fibers.Steel fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete is by far faster to place and therefore has economic benefits. As the fibers are discontinuous, there is merit in considering this structure less susceptible to corrosion and consequential durability issues. We recommend consulting ACI 506.1R and ACI 506.5R. - Slope protection fiber reinforced versus mesh reinforced: for slope protection, both fiber-reinforced and wire-mesh-reinforced shotcrete work well and are durable, reliable, and cost effective if done properly. Care must be taken with wire mesh reinforcing to ensure that it is maintained in the middle of the section and not on the ground where it is not effective. Wire mesh can also be difficult to install on an irregular surface and require more shotcrete material to cover the area and the mesh. The wire mesh can be an asset to the installer in providing a grid to support a scaffold system. In many applications, the choice of wire mesh or fibers should be left to the installer with the engineer specifying the minimum requirement for each.
One of our clients has a 65.6 ft (20 m) tall mechanically supported earth (MSE) wall (to dump the ore from the mine into the crushers). The wall is about 984.25 ft (300 m) long and has approximately 30-degree slopes on both ends, like a pyramid. These slopes have eroded over the last 8 years of operation and some of the wall reinforcing is exposed. We want to stop the erosion and stabilize the slopes. The instructions issued to the contractor are: level the slopes; fill the voids; compact; apply shotcrete (maximum 1 in. [25 mm]). The area in question is 6.6 x 65.6 x 131.2 ft (2 x 20 x 40 m). Is shotcrete application in this case appropriate? Can you forward information on experts we could consult on?
Shotcrete is well suited to the application you have described. You need to determine the characteristics that you want from the shotcrete (strength, toughness, freeze-thaw durability) and include these in the specification. The 1 in. (25 mm) seems very thin for a long-term installation. Please be aware that the material costs (in most cases) will be a small part of the total cost of the installation. You should also make sure that you have a good specification for surface preparation. If the existing surface is not properly prepared, the added shotcrete will not bond well and the installation will not last very long.
The ASA Online Buyers Guide (www.Shotcrete/BuyersGuide) is an excellent source to locate members within the field of shotcrete whom are listed as shotcrete consultants.
Can shotcrete be applied to a slope to act as a retaining wall without a moisture barrier? If a moisture barrier is recommended, what type should we use?
Most shotcrete slopes are placed without moisture barriers and are constructed to ensure that water pressure does not build up behind the slope and create hydrostatic pressure on the backside of the shotcrete. This is generally done with drainage material and weep holes or vents near the base of the shotcrete slope. Please bear in mind that shotcrete slope paving alone is not generally considered as a retaining wall. If shotcrete slope paving is to be used as a retaining structure, it is generally done in conjunction with soil nailing, tie backs, or some type of structural footing. If the shotcrete is intended to be used as a structural wall, a structural engineer must be consulted to be sure all structural issues are addressed.
How can I maintain a 2 in. (50 mm) thickness of shotcrete in a rock excavated tunnel?
There are many ways of maintaining the thickness of shotcrete. When placing shotcrete over a rough rock excavation, the thickness will vary with more material filling in the voids than covering the high points. Some methods of checking or maintaining the thickness are as follows: stabbing the plastic shotcrete with a depth gauge; preinstalling pins to the desired thickness; and using groundwires or shooting wires that would create an even plane over the length of the wires.